"New" Criticism

New Criticism is a formalist approach to literary analysis that emerged in the early-to-mid 20th century, emphasizing the close reading of texts. It focuses on a work’s internal structure—its form, language, symbolism, and unity—rather than external contexts like the author’s biography, historical background, or social influences. The goal is to evaluate literature on its own terms, treating the text as an autonomous and self-contained artifact.

While New Criticism has largely fallen out of favor in higher education, its methodologies remain deeply entrenched in the way literature is taught in American high schools. Students are often encouraged to identify literary devices, explore symbolism, and find a singular "main idea" in a text, reflecting the legacy of this critical approach.

Historical Context and Origins

New Criticism gained prominence in the United States during the 1930s and 1940s, paralleling the rise of modernist literature and the search for more rigorous, scientific approaches to literary studies. Although T.S. Eliot is not formally credited as a founder, his essays, such as Tradition and the Individual Talent (1919), influenced the movement’s emphasis on textual autonomy and the "objective correlative"—the idea that emotion in art is best conveyed through a precise arrangement of objects and events; the internal composition of a character corresponds and must correlate with the physical world as created in the text.

The movement was spearheaded by critics such as:

John Crowe Ransom, who coined the term "New Criticism" with his book The New Criticism (1941).

Cleanth Brooks, whose works, including The Well Wrought Urn (1947), exemplify close reading by analyzing how a poem achieves unity through paradox and tension.

I.A. Richards, an early proponent of practical criticism, emphasizing textual analysis free from preconceived notions or external influences.

W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley, who introduced key concepts like the Intentional Fallacy (the idea that an author’s intent is irrelevant to interpreting the text) and the Affective Fallacy (the idea that a reader’s emotional response is secondary to the text’s inherent meaning).

Core Principles of New Criticism

Close Reading: The text is examined in isolation, with detailed attention to its language, form, and structure.

Textual Unity: A good literary work is self-contained, with every element contributing to its overall meaning and coherence.

Symbolism and Literary Devices: The interpretation of symbols, metaphors, and other devices is central to uncovering the deeper meaning of a text.

Objectivity: Analysis is detached from the author’s intentions (Intentional Fallacy) and the reader’s emotional reactions (Affective Fallacy).

Form and Function: Emphasis is placed on how a work’s structure (its "form") creates meaning (its "function").

Dominance in American High Schools

Although New Criticism fell out of favor in academic circles by the 1970s, its principles remain dominant in secondary education. High school students are often taught to evaluate literature through a checklist of literary devices, focusing on themes, symbolism, and structure in isolation from broader contexts. The "five-paragraph essay," a staple of high school writing, reflects this influence, encouraging students to identify and analyze a singular main idea supported by textual evidence.

Why the Persistence?

Accessibility: New Criticism provides a straightforward method for analyzing texts without requiring extensive knowledge of historical or social contexts.

Assessment-Friendly: Its emphasis on identifying concrete elements like symbols and themes lends itself to standardized testing and clear evaluation criteria.

Canonical Focus: Many high school curricula emphasize the Western literary canon, which aligns well with New Critical methods.

Key Works of New Criticism

John Crowe Ransom – The New Criticism (1941)

The foundational text of the movement, defining its principles and methodologies.

Key Quote: "Criticism must become more scientific, or precise and systematic."

Cleanth Brooks – The Well Wrought Urn (1947)

A collection of essays analyzing canonical poems, emphasizing paradox and textual unity.

Key Quote: "The language of poetry is the language of paradox."

T.S. Eliot – Tradition and the Individual Talent (1919)

Advocates for viewing works as part of a literary tradition while emphasizing textual autonomy.

Key Quote: "The poem is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality."

W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley – The Intentional Fallacy (1946)

A seminal essay arguing that authorial intent is irrelevant to textual interpretation.

Key Quote: "The design or intention of the author is neither available nor desirable as a standard for judging the success of a work of literary art."

I.A. Richards – Practical Criticism (1929)

Pioneered the method of close reading by analyzing students’ responses to poems without authorial or historical context.

Key Quote: "A poem should not mean but be."

Literary Works Through the Lens of New Criticism

The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

Fit: Offers a rich interplay of symbols (e.g., the green light, the eyes of Dr. T.J. Eckleburg) and a tightly woven narrative structure.

Challenge: Ignoring the social and historical context of the 1920s undermines the novel’s critique of class and race.

Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare

Fit: Its intricate use of language, imagery, and poetic form is ideal for close reading.

Challenge: The text’s historical and performative dimensions are largely ignored.

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee

Fit: The novel’s symbolism (e.g., the mockingbird) and themes of justice align well with New Critical analysis.

Challenge: New Criticism would miss the importance of historical context in understanding the racial dynamics of the story.

The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Eliot

Fit: Eliot’s emphasis on imagery, form, and the "objective correlative" is a perfect match for New Critical methods.

Challenge: The poem’s engagement with modernist anxieties benefits from contextual analysis.

Moby-Dick by Herman Melville

Fit: The text’s dense symbolism and thematic unity make it a strong candidate for close reading.

Challenge: The historical and philosophical contexts of 19th-century whaling and transcendentalism are overlooked.